Instructions: –
1. Attempt all the questions.
2. Once you have completed all the questions of a particular section click on the submit button for scores and explanations then move to the next sections.
3. For each correct answer, you receive 1 mark. For this mock, there is no negative marking.
English Language
Our Constitution, as Granville Austin argues, is a social document. And through the years, it hasn’t merely existed as a legal structure but has operated as an organic instrument of governance and social change. These women recognised that the societal change they envisaged could be brought about by influencing constitutional values. For though legal change has its limits, a state and its people cannot be free of legal decrees. Therefore, meaningful engagement with the Constitution is essential, if the political agency of women has to be broadened.
Serving as the guide for legislation, through the years, several acts such as the Maternity Benefit Act, the Dowry Prohibition Act, and the amendments to the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act, have addressed women’s aspirations and empowered them to challenge discriminatory laws and practices, bringing forth societal change. Article 243(D) of the Indian Constitution has allowed for a significant increase in women’s participation in grassroots politics, the provision that ensured women’s voices are represented in the everyday running of their communities and has paved a broader way for women seeking to assert their political ambitions and identity. The newly introduced Women’s Reservation Bill, officially, the 128th Amendment to the Constitution, has been attacked by opposition parties as being sub-optimal, and uncertain, but in so far as the history of such reforms stands, this far-reaching democratic reform once enacted will be impossible to roll back.
As the country continues to evolve, the question of the empowerment of all women holds sway over its polity. With women emerging as a decisive voting bloc, shaping the political fortunes of parties in India, we have seen a gradual growth of election promises that factor in women’s aspirations and pander to their needs. This decisive shift in Indian politics has allowed the woman voter to use her right to franchise, in a manner akin to building a pressure group that pushes for her interests. This has ranged from offering women scholarships, gas subsidies, and reservations for women in government jobs to promising prohibition and even subsidised water and free bus rides.
Beyond the legal provisions that the women have been able to mark out for themselves, women legislators past and present have significantly influenced constitutional values by challenging regressive social norms and cultural practices, by simply taking up political space and loosening the male vice grip on political power. They have marked the constitutional landscape that future generations of women citizens will inherit and negotiate with to demand half the sky and half the earth.
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Legal Reasoning
In the realm of contract law, an “invitation to offer” serves as a precursor to a formal offer, representing an incomplete form of contractual expression. Unlike a concrete offer, which contains specific terms and conditions ready for acceptance, an invitation to offer merely signals an invitation for negotiation. It lays the groundwork for potential agreements by outlining general terms or expressing an intention to enter into negotiations, but crucial material terms remain open for discussion and agreement.
One defining characteristic of an invitation to offer is its non-binding nature. Acceptance of an invitation to offer does not create a legally binding contract. Instead, it initiates a dialogue between parties, allowing them to negotiate and refine the terms of the proposed agreement. This negotiation phase is vital for parties to reach mutual understanding and consensus on the terms and conditions that will govern their contractual relationship.
Moreover, an invitation to offer often lacks the specificity and definitiveness required for a valid offer. While an offer must contain concrete and unambiguous terms that outline the rights and obligations of each party, an invitation to offer typically leaves certain material terms open for negotiation. This flexibility allows parties to tailor the agreement to their specific needs and circumstances, fostering a collaborative and mutually beneficial contractual arrangement.
In practice, the response to an invitation to offer often takes the form of a counter offer. Rather than accepting the invitation outright, the responding party may make their own offer, proposing specific terms and conditions for consideration. This iterative process of offers and counter offers enables parties to refine their positions and negotiate terms that best align with their interests and objectives.
For example, in a real estate transaction, a property listing may serve as an invitation to offer, indicating the seller’s willingness to entertain offers from prospective buyers. When a potential buyer expresses interest in the property, they may submit an offer outlining the purchase price, closing date, and other relevant terms. If the seller finds the offer acceptable, they may choose to accept it, thus forming a binding contract. However, if the terms are not agreeable to the seller, they may counter with a modified offer, initiating further negotiation.
In summary, an invitation to offer acts as a preliminary step in the contract formation process, signaling a willingness to engage in negotiations without creating binding obligations. It provides a framework for parties to explore potential agreements, allowing for flexibility and customization of terms through negotiation. While an invitation to offer lacks the specificity of a formal offer, it serves as a catalyst for productive dialogue and eventual agreement between parties.
Logical Reasoning
The 6th Assembly of the International Solar Alliance (ISA), scheduled in New Delhi from October 30 to November 2, will be a confluence of leaders from 116 nations, presided over by RK Singh, Union Power and New & Renewable Energy Minister. This assembly will focus on enhancing energy security, facilitating energy transition, and expanding access to energy.
Key discussions at the assembly will revolve around the universalization of energy access through solar mini-grids, mobilizing finance for solar deployment, and diversifying solar energy supply chains and manufacturing. A high-level conference on November 1, 2023, will address climate change and solar energy deployment, marking a significant event in the assembly.
The ISA will release three flagship reports, highlighting advancements in solar technology, market trends, and investment patterns. The World Solar Technology Report 2023 emphasizes crystalline silicon technology’s dominance in the solar PV market, projected to constitute a significant portion of the renewable energy share by 2050. The World Solar Market Report 2023 provides a comprehensive analysis of the solar market’s evolution, noting a significant market expansion in 2022 and a shift in regional dynamics of solar adoption.
RK Singh emphasized ISA’s commitment to member countries, focusing on programmatic support, capacity-building, and regulatory understanding. He highlighted the ISA’s role in fostering investment-friendly environments and ensuring energy availability to meet global demands. The assembly aims to expedite the adoption of solar power, with a focus on decentralized solutions and green hydrogen.
India’s experience in renewable energy growth, particularly in solar energy, is highlighted as a model for reliability and dependability. Bhupinder Singh Bhalla, MNRE Secretary, noted the increase in countries ratifying the ISA Framework Agreement, emphasizing ISA’s objectives for global energy transition, national energy security, and local energy access.
Ajay Mathur, ISA Director General, pointed out the significant growth in clean energy investment, driven by solar and wind projects. He advocated for enhanced collaboration with international financial organizations and governments to boost investment in developing economies.
In summary, the 6th Assembly of the ISA represents a pivotal step towards a sustainable and equitable energy future, with solar power playing a central role in the global energy landscape.
Quantitative Techniques
Mehta electronics deals in Air conditioners (ACs) of only three companies namely Samsung, LG and Lloyd. Each AC is of one of two types namely split and window. In January, total number of ACs sold by Mehta electronics was 198. The following information is also known about the number of ACs of different companies sold:
For Samsung: Number of windows ACs sold in February was 20% more than that in January. However, number of split ACs sold in February was 25% less than that in January.
For LG: Number of ACs sold in January was 1 more than that in February, even though number of windows ACs sold in February was 8 more than that in January.
For Lloyd: Number of windows ACs to number of split ACs, sold in January were in the ratio 7:8 and this ratio changed to 7:5, in February. Total number of ACs sold in February was 36 more than that in January.
Also,
- Out of total number of windows ACs sold in February, ratio of number of Samsung, LG and Lloyd, window ACs, sold in February was 9:8:14, respectively.
- In January, number of Lloyd ACs sold was equal to number of LG ACs sold. Number of Samsung ACs sold in January was 78.
General Knowledge
The Framework Convention by the Council of Europe on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy, and the Rule of Law is a historic step forward in the regulation of artificial intelligence across the world. This is the first treaty in the world that the United States, European Union, and the United Kingdom are about to sign-up on, a legally binding international agreement focused on ensuring that the development and use of AI do not contradict fundamental human rights as well as democratic values and the rule of law. The treaty has come in a time when deep embedding of AI systems into most sectors of governance, society, and industry has raised profound questions regarding ethics and the law as their potential impact may reach high levels.
The treaty wants to avoid disparate national approaches to AI governance. It threatens to hinder the proper progress of technology and creates inconsistency in legal protections. It is important because it takes a holistic approach to regulate AI. Its framework is based on a “risk-based framework”: therefore, AI applications need to be weighed against the risk they pose for human rights and democratic processes. Additional forms of oversight will be applied to the systems under this category which include high-risk AI systems, such as those applying to criminal justice or healthcare decisions and political decision-making processes. The treaty is obviously aimed at both government and private sector actors: each is held accountable for the ethical application of AI. Importantly, it sets up legal protection for human beings and provides them with opportunities to seek redress where AI systems violate their rights. This is precisely when AI technologies are impacting such sensitive areas as employment and law enforcement and public services where the risks of discrimination or breach of privacy are high.
The treaty drew from over 50 countries within a two-year period and reflects a kind of consensus among many nations for coordinated governance in AI. The treaty would set global standards to prevent conflicting national regulations that may ultimately reduce innovation and raise legal uncertainty. These include transparency requirements in AI development, where AI systems explain and make their decision-making processes understandable to the public. Focus on AI technologies for transparency shall contribute much in building public trust, especially on a specific area like automated decision making and algorithmic bias, which has become a growing concern.
Above all, protecting democracy from potential threats of AI is the most important goal the treaty is directed at trying to solve. With the emergent development in fears over election manipulation and public opinion control through the spread of misinformation by AI, the treaty is striving to set out avenues that ensure that the systems of AI are not adopted against democratic processes. It also focuses on accountability and clearly provides pathways for how developers and users of AI are to be held accountable for all the harm that their systems may cause. The treaty is not a full cover on how AI is used, such as national security or research in specific fields; however, it does set a strong foundation for future regulation within those areas.
Although the treaty is legally binding in nature, it does not contain punitive mechanisms, such as fines or penalties, toward ensuring that the treaty is properly enforced. Instead, compliance will be assessed regularly on good faith, and every country is expected to abide by the guidelines of the treaty. Such an approach has come under criticism because of concerns regarding the ability of the treaty to enforce complete accountability, as in many countries, enforcement mechanisms for international agreements may be a bit weakened.